Effective Communication Essay Example for Free

Effective Communication Essay Effective communication is the backbone of any business organisation. Discuss. Communication can be defined as a two way process of reaching mutual understanding in which participants not only exchange(encode and decode) information but also create and share meaning. Effective communication is whereby the information send must be received and understood by the receiver in the way intended by the sender and the receiver has to send feedback to confirm the results. Managerial time is largely spent on face to face, electronic or telephone communication with subordinates, supervisors and customers. Views of organizational communication can be categorized as those that view organizational communication as one aspect of an organization versus those that see it as the underlying basis of the organization itself. An example of the former is exemplified by Drenth et al. 1998), who define communication as the sending and receiving of messages by means of symbols and see organizational communication as a key element of organizational climate. The latter viewpoint is reflected by Myers and Myers (1982:34) who define organizational communication as â€Å"the central binding force that permits coordination among people and thus allows for organized Behaviour,† and Rogers and Rogers (1976:3) who argue that â€Å"the behaviour of individuals in organizations is best understood from a communication point of view. The success of the organization greatly depends on the effectiveness of organizational communication, hence to a larger extent, communication can be regarded as the backbone of every business organization and therefore communication needs to be effective and also this is the reason why effective communication skills form vital part of a job requirement, are prerequisite for promotion to higher positions and are essential to all problem solving since they ignite enthusiasm, enhance motivation and hone traits of leadership. The success of an endeavour hinges on the ability to communicate effectively in todays fast paced life, everyone is asked to do more with less. In such a scenario effective communication holds the key. Effectively communication centres round the usage of words, speed of delivery of words, pitch modulation and body language. Using the right tools to communicate the right messages at the right time can salvage crises and motivate people to work towards success. Communication in an organization is inevitable. Departments communicate from time to time in respect to daily activities and the organizations relationship with the external world. It says what it intended via written and unwritten means, either planned or impromptu. It could be hierarchical, that is, from top to bottom or vice versa. It could be formal or informal; vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Whichever means, modes or types of communication, what matters is that communication takes place. At a most basic level, good communication is necessary to be able to follow instructions and to carry out roles. If a member of staff misunderstands what it is that they need to do and the basic functions and roles of the management could not be performed without communication. Planning, organizing, coordinating, budgeting, monitoring, controlling, staffing, delegation; and including marketing, production, financing, staffing (human resource managing), research and development, purchasing, and selling could not be well coordinated, harnessed and their goals achieved without communication Effective communication strengthens the organization’s existing relationships and helps the subordinates to form strong positive bonds in future interactions. In essence through communicating subordinates and management get to agree on certain specific performance standards to control and guide activity towards the attainment of the organization’s overall objectives. If there is poor communication, there lacks uniformity between the required performance and actual performance therefore if communication improves relationships, misunderstandings are reduced. Effective communication is related to self confidence therefore if the organization has in place proper channels of communication subordinates are motivated in the sense that they get feedback for information that would have been passed. If subordinates are given room to respond to instructions in any way, that is, by asking questions or even suggestive questions, it shows to them that they are involved as part of the organization and the sense of belongingness motivates employees. Motivated employees are productive, so in essence one can say effective communication motivates employees hence increases productivity of workers as it even facilitates delegation of duties, reducing overlapping responsibility and work overload. Finally communication increases job satisfaction. Communication facilitates decision making, if two directional communication is used, lower level managers getting a chance to be heard by top management with their work needs being met, proper organizational decisions can be made. Operational managers and their subordinates are believed to have a closer contact with customers and clients, therefore they know better what the customers need at a specific time and the proper decisions are made as to what should the organization do to meet the demands of the consumers(delivering the right merchandise to the right people at he right time and place). Communication also increases participation, that is, if a goal is communicated throughout the organization, the subordinates with the aim of achieving self esteem would want to participate in the attainment of the desired outcome motivated by the rewards they expect from participation, effort and performance(Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory). Production of defects is also reduced by effective communication. Subordinates usually work under instruction, that is, there should however be proper clarification on what really needs to be produced, boiled or roasted chicken. If there are no proper channels of communication, producers end up producing the products that are not required. Effective communication also facilitates coordination between individuals and departments within an organization (production department and the marketing team or the research and development department). Communication reduces and resolves conflicts, for instance resource allocation conflicts, the marketing department and the production department need to communicate well on how the finance department has allocated financial resources for their purposes, failure to communicate results in departmental conflicts. However it is through communication that both individual conflicts and departmental conflicts can be resolved. Leaders should create open communication and state clearly what they could have seen that, heard or experienced that would have influenced their views in the matter at hand as conflict often arises from misunderstanding and misconceptions of what people meant. Everyone allowed should then be allowed to say what is important to them (communicate openly) why is it important and what they are hoping for. Effective communication gives the subordinates the ability to express new ideas and therefore policies and standards can be easily formulated and monitored. For organizations that use budgeting as a planning tool, communication is needed in the process of formulating budgets since the process involves individuals from all departments (functions) to participate in the formulation of functional budgets. Communication helps ensure uniformity and timing of the budgets hence proper allocation of financial resources. Open communication increases trust among subordinates, that is, they will have shared agendas and objectives are revealed to everyone. Open communication is therefore preferable since the parties involved can scrutinize the message fro hidden agendas and meanings without trying to understand the message itself, hence creates supportive climates for subordinates, team building and team work and coordination. Managers use downward communication to direct, inform, coordinate and evaluate subordinates and also to provide job descriptions, rules and policies as well as procedures to the subordinates and the subordinates use upward communication to supply information to the upper levels about what is happening at the lower levels and this comes in form of questions feedback and suggestions. However in the process of communicating, the parties involved encounter certain barriers that may haunt communication, these may include differing perceptions, language, noise inconsistent verbal and non-verbal communication, emotionality, information overload, filtering of information and increased specialization as in lateral communication. Differing perceptions, that is when the receiver often sees or hears information depending on his/her needs, motivations, experience and background. Language refers to the words used, words mean different things to different people for example the term ‘short term’ in the research and development would mean six to nine years while in the hotel industry the period may range from four to six months. Language difference may also come in the form of jargon. Non-verbal communication is often accompanied by oral communication for example showing anger in the tone of the voice. Emotional reactions such as anger, jealous, hate and fear influence how we understand others’ messages. Information overload occurs when the information received exceeds the capabilities of the human information system, that is, when the subordinate is overloaded with reports, manuals, letters, memos, which he/she has to go through within a limited time as a result the subordinate will ignore some of the things or there will be delay on his part which will hinder communication within the organization. Information can be shortened or lengthened such that at the end the original information can be distorted. To sum up one can say that regardless of the above mentioned shortcomings communication remains the backbone of any organization since there are certain measures that can be put in place to overcome the barriers, some of which are that parties involved should carefully understand the background of each other and thoroughly explain the message, emphasizing and seeing the situation from the other person’s point of view to remove ambiguity in messages. Using simple language and ask for feedback, confirming and restating the main points of the message. Gestures, postures and facial expressions and other non-verbal communication should agree with the message. Subordinates should talk about their concerns and should pay special attention to what they say. Organizations can also introduce casual recreational activities so that managers can meet their subordinates on an informal basis for example organizing a sports day where organizational problems can be discussed on an informal basis. In general, removing communication in an organization, we are going to have dead entity, good for nothing and worth been shut down. Communication is the backbone for organizations success since it increases the will to work, skill to work, and thrill to work.

Analysis of the Sabbath in Judaism and Christianity Essay -- Papers

In both Judaism and Christianity, the Sabbath is a religious day of worship. Jewish people celebrate it on a Saturday and Christians celebrate it on a Sunday. It is a day of rest and worship. Christians celebrate it on a Sunday because that Is the day of the resurrection (Easter Sunday). Jesus was Jewish. He was a good Jew. Jesus worshiped in the synagogue on the Sabbath, but he used to come into conflict with the Pharisees, Jewish religious leaders, over many religious laws and customs. He told them that he thought they were using the laws to their own power and that they did not explain to the Jewish people the meanings of these laws. The Pharisees were the Jewish religious leaders. They were concerned to uphold in every detail the Jewish religious laws including those of the Sabbath. Jesus came into conflict with them many times, they saw Jesus as a threat. Jesus came into conflict with Pharisees` many times about the Sabbath. In Mark 1:21-31 (a man with an evil spirit). Jesus and the disciples went to Capernaum. On the Sabbath Jesus went to the synagogue to teach. People were amazed by the way he taught, â€Å"he taught with authority† they remarked. A man with an evil spirit came n, Jesus ordered the spirit â€Å"Be quiet, and come out of the man!† The spirit then came out of the man. People were amazed and the news spread quickly. The Pharisees wouldn’t agree with this being done on the Sabbath because it is a kind of work, but Jesus does agree with it because it is a good deed and helps another which is also considered as necessary work. In Mark 2:23-28 (the question about the Sabbath). Jesus and the disciple... ...nd Mary Magdalene went to go and anoint the body of Jesus. At sunrise early Sunday morning they went to the tomb. They went on the day after the Sabbath because it against the law of the Sabbath to anoint the body on the day of the Sabbath. We know that Jesus was a good Jew, because on many occasions mentioned in the Gospels he is in the synagogue, teaching and praying. We also know that Christ read the scriptures and taught in the synagogue on the Sabbath. He also healed people on the Sabbath. Different Christian denominations focus on different things that they believe are most important. You have the Pulpit based worship which the Methodists, church of Scotland and United Reformed Quakers use. Eucharist based which Catholics and Church of England focus on. Lastly the Good works based which Salvation army focus on.

Battle of Frediericksburg Analysis

The Battle of Fredericksburg David P. Wrighten, CPT, MS Class 09-002 Small Group 6, MAJ Sims 03 April 2009 Abstract In early December 1862, the Union Army of the Potomac had massed on the northern bank of the Rappahannock River as it was in position to strike the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia. The Union also position themselves to cut off the Confederate Army’s main supply route for the import and export of goods in the south. The Confederate Army of Northern Virginia confronted the Union Army’s attempted strike on the south side of the Rappahannock by occupying the high ground overlooking the riverside town of Fredericksburg. Caught between the two opposing armies, Fredericksburg was destined to the battleground for a bloody prelude of major battles between the Union and Confederate armies in the open fields of the south. The Battle of Fredericksburg Introduction The Battle of Fredericksburg occurred on 11 December 1862 on the banks of the Rappahannock River near the small town of Fredericksburg, Virginia. Pitting three divisions of the Union Forces commanded by MG Edwin V. Sumner, MG Joseph Hooker, and MG William B. Franklin, approximately 120,000 Soldiers against the two Confederate Forces Corps of Northern Virginia commanded by LTG James Longstreet and LTG Thomas L. Jackson approximately 90,000 Soldiers. This battle emphasized the effective use of Weather, Maneuver, Observation Fields of Fire, Cover, and concealment, Obstacles, Key Terrain, and Avenues of Approach. The use of the Battlefield Operating Systems was instrumental in the success of the mission. The primary source used to gather information was, Decisive Battles of the Civil War: the Battle of Fredericksburg by LT. COL. Joseph B. MitchellDrama on the Rappahannock: the Fredericksburg Campaign by Edward J. Stackpole. Secondary sources used were The Battle of Fredericksburg a Special Edition of: Civil War Times by Edward J. Stackpole and Guide to the Battles of Chancellorsville and Fredericksburg by Jay Luvaas and Harold W. Nelson. Strategic Setting Fredericksburg, Virginia during the 1860s had developed into a family oriented community. This town happened to be the farthest point to navigate up the Rappahannock River. It was a very important site for trading for imported and exported goods. However, the larger, newer sailing vessels had difficulties in navigating the Rappahannock, which greatly hinder the international trade with other less modern customers of trade. This allowed members of Fredericksburg to live a more normal or less congested big city lifestyle. Militarily, this river is important for resupplying Soldiers critical supplies in order to fight effectively. The town of Fredericksburg changed hands many times throughout the war. Being located so closely to Richmond and Washington, it can greatly assist or resist in a potential attack on Richmond or Washington. In addition, this town could act as a staging area prior to launching an attack on the nation’s capital. Furthermore, four major battles fought within a seventeen-mile radius of Fredericksburg, Virginia. The major encounter during the Battle of Fredericksburg took place in Virginia. MG Ambrose Burnside’s Federal Army of the Potomac tried to countermine Gen Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia and capture Richmond. However, this would be a difficult task, since the Confederates were deeply entrenched into a defensive position west of town. Tactical Situation 1. Mission: Gen Burnside’s was to cross the Rappahannock River and seize the heights behind Fredericksburg, Virginia before Gen Lee’s army arrived. After seizing the town of Fredericksburg, the Army of the Potomac would then advance south to Richmond. In order to cross the Rappahannock Burnside had to build multiple bridges; for this purpose, support elements sent pontoon bridge equipment to Fredericksburg. The Union Forces arrived to the northern banks of the Rappahannock; there were no Confederate Forces in sight. It ould seem as if the advantage would be on the side of the Union Forces. 2. Equipment: Gen Hunt deployed riflemen to provide covering fire for the engineers at each end of the three construction points. He also possessed 147 artillery pieces to serve as the main deterrent to the Confederate Forces opposing the Union effort and accommodate a moderate logistics train. His ammo and other classes of supply were plentiful but the distance wou ld slowly cause these resources to erode. The Confederates had sufficient food and water, but other classes of supply were scarce, particularly their ammo. Many carried hunting rifles and shotguns of varying caliber. The Union Forces had a clear advantage. 3. Terrain: The city and its environs along the Rappahannock River in north-central Virginia were significant obstacles to Union advances on Richmond, the Confederate capital. The battlefield consists of a series of flood plains and river terraces with gentle slopes paralleled by north-south ridges that provide structural boundaries on either side, all comprised of Tertiary and Quaternary Coastal Plain sediments. The Confederates, led by Gen Robert E. Lee, effectively used natural terrain features to impede attacks made by the Union army. Tactical benefits also accrued by the Confederates from manufactured obstacles on the battlefield, e. g. , stone walls and fences. After crossing the Rappahannock River, the Union Army, had to attack uphill with little cover in their unsuccessful attempts to dislodge the Confederates. This gave the Confederate Forces the advantage against the Union strike. 4. Troops: Strategically the Union Forces had the advantage with the number of troops under Gen Burnsides command at nearly 120,000. The Confederate Forces had the advantage as having set up their defensive positions and direct access through their supply routes to their headquarters in Richmond, Virginia. The Confederate Forces did lack military training in the ranks as well as standard issue items that would help in the success of their campaign. The Union Forces had a clear advantage as far as personnel, but Confederate Forces had an advantage for their ability to resupply the units. 5. Time: This historic Fredericksburg Campaign planned and executed over a two-month period in November – December of 1862. This was during an extremely cold and harsh winter season. It reduced both the Union and Confederate forces from quiet movements, clear line of sight during pre-dawn hours (fog on the river), heavy snowfall, which restricted movements, thick terrain made of oak, maple, cedar, and highly thick entangled brush cause limited mobility, counter mobility and reduced eyes on the enemy. Therefore, even though the weather did not favor either side, it did not kept tactical goals of either side from being established. The Battle After, the Battle of Bull Run both armies devoted the second half of 1861 and part of 1862 to make serious adjustments for more important battles to come. Procurement of supplies, training, recruiting new soldiers, and other military activities was the primary training mission of both armies. Neither force was in any particular hurry to conduct an offensive operation. An impatient President waited in the White House to see how his popular commanding officer will retrain and utilize his powerful forces. Gen McClellan moved his forces in March 1862, via water, to the Virginia Peninsula between the York and James Rivers. The intent of this move was to take Richmond, Virginia. However, Johnston countered this plan by moving his Confederate soldiers overland in the same direction. Therefore, Gen Mc McClellan staged his troops at Fort Monroe. At the same time, Stonewall Jackson began his Shenandoah Valley Campaign, wounded in battle General Johnston was succeed by Robert E. Lee. On Oct. 6, the President instructed Gen McClellan to â€Å"cross the Potomac and give battle to the enemy, or drive him South. Your army must now move,† â€Å"he said, â€Å"while the roads are good. † Twenty-four days spent in correspondence before Gen McClellan obeyed the order of the president. Gen McClellan complained of a lack of men and supplies to make it prudent to move forward. At length, October had nearly passed by and Gen Lee’s army thoroughly rested and reorganized, and communications with Richmond re-established, the Army of the Potomac began to cross the river (Oct. 26), 100,000 strong. The Nationals led down the east side of the Blue Ridge, but failed to strike the retreating Confederates over the mountain in flank or to get ahead of them; and Gen Lee pushed Gen Longstreet’s troops over the Blue Ridge to Culpeper Courthouse, between the Army of the Potomac and Richmond, ready to dispute the advance of the Nationals. Quick and energetic movements were now necessary to sever and defeat, in detail, Gen Lee’s army. (See Map 1) On Nov. 75, the President relieved Gen McClellan of command, and Gen Burnside took command of the Corps. A sense of responsibility made the latter commander exceedingly cautious. Before he moved, he endeavored to get his 120,000 men well in hand. Gen Burnside determined Aquia Creek Landing as his resupply hub and main base for his assault. His overall decision was to, and he moved the army towards Fredericksburg down the Fredericksburg Route towards Fredericksburg. The allowed his forces to cover Washington and assure better protection of his lines of resupply and communication. Oon Nov. 150 Gen. Sumner led the movement from Warrenton down the left bank of the Rappahannock and covered almost 40 miles in two and one-half days to Falmouth. By November 21, Gen Longstreet's Corps had arrived near Fredericksburg, and Gen Jackson's (which had been downstream along the Rappahannock to prevent crossings there) was following rapidly. Gen Lee at first anticipated that he would fight Gen Burnside northwest of Fredericksburg and that it might be necessary to drop back behind the North Anna River. However, when he saw how slowly Gen Burnside was moving, he directed all of his army toward Fredericksburg. The first pontoon bridges arrived at Falmouth on November 25, much too late to enable the Army of the Potomac to cross the river without opposition. Gen Burnside still had an opportunity, however, because he was facing only half of Gen Lee's army, not yet dug in, and if he acted quickly, he might be able to attack Longstreet and defeat him before Jackson arrived. Once again, he squandered his opportunity. The bridges arrived at the end of the month, and by this time, Gen Jackson was present and Gen Longstreet was preparing strong defenses. Gen Burnside originally plannedplanned to use Gen McClellan’s original plan of to crossing his army east of Fredericksburg; 10 miles (16 km) downstream at Skinker's Neck, but Early's division arrived there and blocked him. Therefore,So he Gen Burnside decided to cross directly at Fredericksburg. On December 9, he wrote to Halleck, â€Å"I think now the enemy will be more surprised by a crossing immediately in our front than any other part of the river. †¦ I'm convinced that a large force of the enemy is now concentrated at Port Royal, its left resting on Fredericksburg, which we hope to turn. † In addition to, his numerical advantage in troop strength, Gen Burnside also had the advantage of knowing his army could not be attacked effectively. On the other side of the Rappahannock, 220 artillery pieces had been located on the ridge known as Stafford Heights to prevent Gen Lee's army from mounting any major counterattacks. (See Map 1) On the morning of December 11, Union Engineers began the construction of six pontoon bridges in preparation for the passage of Union Forces across the Rappahannock River. Two placed north of the Town Center, a third on the southern end of town, and three further south near the confluence of the Rappahannock and Deep Run. During the assembly of the pontoon bridges, Union Engineers came under punishing fire from the Confederate Forces primarily from the sharpshooters of the Mississippi Brigade commanded by Gen Barksdale. Gen Burnside. tThen ordered his Union artillery batteries then to shelled the city. The artillery fire lasted for an hour in terrific bombardment in hopes to drive the Confederate sharpshooters out of their positions. The bombardment failed to dampen the spirits of Barksdale’s sharpshooters, as soon as the artillery fire ceased the musketeers popped out of the holes and resumed firing. Thus, the first attempt to cross the river was a failure due to the Confederates’ fires on federal engineers constructing pontoon bridges on the river. Gen Burnsides’ staff immediately began mission analysis on another plan to cross the river. Gen Hunt suggested the only solution to cross the river are volunteers to cross by ferry rowing in pontoons to secure the opposite side of the river a lay suppressive fire on Confederate sharpshooters to cover the bridge layers. Because of a lack in confidence on his part, Gen BurnsideIf he was confident and swift in issuing was slow in issuing his tactical instructions,instructions; the Union Army of the Potomac may have caught the Confederates unready to defend their positions properly. In addition to the failure of the first attempt to cross, there wasAdditionally, a decrease in morale of the Union ForcesArmy of the Potomac and their senior commandeleadershipr due to the hesitation of Gen Burnsides decisionstheir overall commander on not just one critical occasion but several occasions. Other occasions of indecisiveness and lack of initiative in dealing with the blunder of getting the pontoons transferred from Washington also attributed to the decrease in morale of not only the Leadership leadership but also the Soldiers. Furthermore, the inability of Burnside to consider the advice advice, from Gen Halleck, was trying to give on where to cross the river showed the lack of communication from the field commander to Washington Headquarters. The Chief Engineer of the Army ordered his engineers in the following format (Stackpole, p122): (These were the actual orders that were issued) Engineers will place two pontoons bridges to be constructed at the site of old pontoon bridge, one of them to have approaches for artillery. One pontoon bridge at site of old canal-boat bridge; approaches for artillery. Additionally, we will place two pontoon bridges just below mouth of Deep Run, a mile below Fredericksburg one to have artillery approach. Major Spaulding to throw three uppe r ones: major Magruder to throw the next, and Lieutenant Cross the lowest one. Bridge equipage, now at White Oak Church, to move up and go into park near Phillip’s house by dark. At midnight trains to move down within 400 yards of river, and to move down and begin unloading a two in the morning. If enemy fire is kept down, bridges to be thrown as soon as are unloaded; if too hot, wait until artillery silences it† The battle opened south of the city at 8:30 a. m. on December 13, when Maj. Gen. William Franklin ordered two of the divisions from the Left Grand Division to maneuver themselves through an unseen gap in Gen Jackson's defenses on the right and head towards Hamilton’s Crossing. By 10 a. m. , a thick fog began to lift, and the initially sluggish movements picked up speed. Gen Meade's division of 4,500 men formed the main attack, in direct support of Gen Meade’sthese movements the divisions of Gen Doubleday and Gen Gibbon. The Virginia Horse Artillery under Major John Pelham stalled the attack, and an artillery duel between Pelham and the Union artillery batteries lasted for approximately an hour. MAJ Pelham started his artillery attack with only two cannons—a 12-pounder Napoleon smoothbore and a rifled Blakely—but continued with only one after counter-battery fire disabled one of the cannons. Gen Lee observed the action and commented about Pelham, age 24, â€Å"It is glorious to see such courage in one so young. † As Meade finally made traction, he ran into Brig. Gen. Maxcy Gregg's brigade, scattering it. Gen Gregg was shot and mortally wounded; he died two days later. To Gen Meade's right, Gen Gibbon's attack against the brigades of Brig. Gen. William Dorsey Pender and Edward L. Thomas made good progress, but Gen Meade and Gen Gibbon men became separated; by 1:30 p. m. , a heavy Confederate counterattack pushed them back to the beachhead of the Rappahannock. Because of the foggy conditions, Federal artillery could not provide much assistance because of the inability to discern between Union and Confederate Forces. Driven back and chased by the Confederate infantry, raised some concerns with Gen Burnside, his divisions may be trapped at the river. The Federal line strengthened with addition of Brig. Gen. Daniel E. Sickles and Brig. Gen. David B. Birney divisions, and Stonewall Jackson's counterattack grounded to a halt. The focus of action moved north to Marye Heights. The initial assaults west of Fredericksburg began at 11 a. . as French's divisiontwo divisions from Gen Couch’s Corps, Gen French’s division and Gen Hancock’s division, moved along the Plank Road, facing a steep-banked drainage ditch and a wide, open plain of 400 yards (370 m), dominated by Confederate infantry and artillery behind a sunken road and stone wall. Earlier, artillerist Edward Porter Alexander, â€Å"A chicken could not live on that field w hen we open on it,† had assured Gen Longstreet. The Union men attacking had to file d into columns over two small bridges across the drainage ditch, making them a massed target. Attempts to shift the attack farther to the right failed because of swampy ground. As in the south, Union artillery was prevented by fog from effectively silencing the Confederate guns as from Stafford Heights Union guns were unable to reach the Confederate positions. Gen Burnside had anticipated this attack on the right would be merely supportive of his main effort on the left, but Franklin had stalled and resisted entreaties to continue, so Gen Burnside shifted his emphasis. After French's division was repulsed with heavy losses, Gen Burnside sent in the divisions of Gen Hancock and Gen Howard, which met a similar fate. By this time, Gen Pickett's division and one of Gen Hood's brigades had marched north to reinforce Marye Heights. Gen Griffin's division renewed the attack at 3:30 p. m. , followed by Gen Humphrey's division at 4 p. m. At dusk, Gen Getty's division assaulted from the east and was repulsed. Gen Burnside sent six Union Divisions in, virtually one brigade at a time, for sixteen individual charges, all of which failed, costing them from 6,000 to 8,000 casualties. Watching the carnage from the center of his line, a position now known as Lee's Hill, Gen Lee quoted as saying, â€Å"It is well that war is so terrible, or we should grow too fond of it. The action on the heights also included the charge of the Irish Brigade, which lost 50% of its strength in the battle but advanced further up the heights than any other Union Brigade. Confederate losses at Marye Heights totaled around 1,200. The falling of darkness and the pleas of Gen Burnside's subordinates were enough to put an end to the a ttacks. Gen Longstreet later wrote, â€Å"The charges had been desperate and bloody, but utterly hopeless. † Thousands of Union soldiers spent the cold December night on the fields leading to the Heights, unable to move or assist the wounded because of Confederate fire. The armies remained in position throughout the day on December 14, when Gen Burnside briefly considered leading his old IX Corps in one final attack on Marye Heights, but with the suggestions of many of his officers, he reconsidered and abandoned his campaign sending his troops to northern bank of the Rappahannock River. That afternoon, Burnside asked Lee for a truce to attend to his wounded, which Lee graciously granted. The next day the Federal forces retreated across the river, and the campaign ended. SIGNIFICANCE 1. Short Term: The Battle at Fredericksburg clearly showed how disastrous the Union Army Tactics were; President Abraham Lincoln relieved Gen Burnside of command a month after this battle. 2. Long Term: This was a major victory for the Army of Northern Virginia and costly to the Army of the Potomac. Many believe that Gen Lee lost his best chances to destroy the Gen Burnside’s forces at Fredericksburg. Overall, the loss broke the morale of the Army of the Potomac and showed a weakness in the indecisiveness and lack of imagination in part of Gen Burnside. ANALYSIS Gen Burnside failed to achieve the tenant of Initiative and his overall objective of destroying the enemy forces securing the town of Fredericksburg because he violated the Principle of Security and the Battle Operating System of Intelligence. The bulk of his forces fought to cross the river and very few were concerned with providing suppressive fire for the unit crossing. Gen Lee’s forces upon making contact with what he believed to be the enemies fleeing main force at Devil’s Swamp, he committed himself to battle without pausing to use his cavalry to reconnoiter the country. Gen Lee used his CCavalry Troops conducted rereconnaissancecon'd to the east and west of the Rappahannock marshy lowlandsRiver;, an action that gave him an extreme advantage into witnessing the movement of Gen Burnside's forceswhich might have permitted him to cross unmolested at a point up or downstream from the swamp. Thus, outflanking Culpepper and forcing him to withdraw without an opportunity to spring his cleverly crafted trap. The use of the terrain also gave Gen Lee a clear advantage as the Rappahannock River and extended entrenchments gave Gen Burnside’s forces great difficulty. For his part, Brigadier CulpepperGen Lee effectively adhered to the Principles of Maneuver, Mass, and Economy of Force. Through the Tenant of Synchronization, these factors combined to create the culminating Principle of Surprise. Outnumbered and outgunned, he realized that he could not achieve his objective of ascertaining Morgan’s Gen Burnside’s force and denying it control of the rail and road junction, as well as Yearlingvilletown of Fredericksburg, by engaging in a conventional battle on anything approaching even terms he used unconventional tactics to achieve his goal. He possessed a clear understanding of what he had to accomplish and how he had to do so. He Gen Lee employed Maneuver and Mass of critical combat power at the decisive time and place while making effective use of both the weak and strong points of the units he led. By marring Morgan in the swampsstalling Burnside’s movement across the river, he placed his enemy in a position of disadvantage. He shifted the battle to one where he positioned his massed combat power into a fixed enemy whose only option was to sink and die discontinue its efforts of seizing the town of Fredericksburg and retreat to the north side of the Rappahannock River. Culpepper Gen Lee exercised effective Synchronization and Economy of Force, deftly controlling the movements and fires of the disparate elements of his force in accordance with the elements of an intelligently conceived and workable plan of action in order to bring about the desired combat power at the decisive point. His employment of his cavalry, guerrillas, and militia reflected a thorough thought process of utilizing each element in ana precisely orchestrated maneuver exact orchestration to achieve the desired effect of ousting the Army of the Potomac from the town of Fredericksburg back to the northern banks of the Rappahannock River. uring Morgan’s troops into the killing field of overwhelming force. His exploitation of Union Forces weaknesses in decisive movement and execution of a sound plan display Gen Lee’s his Seminole scouts’ superior knowledge of critical terrain features while denying the enemy the opportunity to effectively reconnoiter the same gro und gave the critical element of Surprise once the battle was opened in accordance with the time, place and circumstances of his own choosing. Stackpole, Edward J. Drama on the Rappahannock: The Fredericksburg Campaign. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1991 P. 23 Stackpole, Edward J. Drama on the Rappahannock: The Fredericksburg Campaign. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1991 P. 121 Stackpole, Edward J. Drama on the Rappahannock: The Fredericksburg Campaign. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1991, P. 122 O'Reilly, Francis Augustin, The Fredericksburg Campaign: Winter War on the Rappahannock, Louisiana State University Press, 2003, P. 148 Goolrick, William K. and the Editors of Time-Life Books, Rebels Resurgent: Fredericksburg to Chancellorsville, Time-Life Books, 1985, P. 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY FM 3-0 Operations. Washington, D. C. : Headquarters Department of the Army, 2001. Goolrick, William K. Rebels Resurgent: Fredericksburg to Chancellorsville. Time-Life Books, 1985. Kennedy, Frances H. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990. Luvaas, Jay and Nelson, Harold W. The U. S. Army War College Guides to the Battles of Chancellorsville & Fredericksburg. Lawrence: the University Press of Kansas, 1994. Mitchell, Joseph B. Decisive Battles of the Civil War. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1955. O'Reilly, Francis Augustin. The Fredericksburg Campaign: Winter War on the Rappahannock. Louisiana State University Press, 2003. Palfrey, Francis W. The Army in the Civil War: The Antietam & Fredericksburg. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1885. Parish, Peter J. The American Civil War. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc, 1991. Stackpole, Edward J. Drama on the Rappahannock: The Fredericksburg Campaign. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvannia: Stackpole Books, 1991.

Homosexuals and the Current Scenario of Egypt - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2308 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Research paper Level High school Did you like this example? Contents Homosexuals and current Scenario of Egypt: International Human Rights and Social Justice for Homosexuals: Human Rights and Social Justice at Country Level: Violation of Country Law: History of Homosexuality in Egypt: Perpetrators of Homosexuality: Primary motivation orobjective of the violations: Consensus on the Crises and Compensation of the Victims: Gay and Lesbian Rights and International Community: LGBT rights in Egypt: Individual Case (Wissam Abyad Prosecution) Conclusion: Bibliography Homosexuals and current Scenario of Egypt: The Egyptian Government dealt homosexuals in cruel way for stopping the rising popularity of Religious activist groups such as Ikhwan-al-Muslimeen. Government of Egypt has used courts for holding and torture of Gay men (laceholder1). This policy of Government got wide support from the public and for this reason allowed the Rule to shore up its Islamic Qualifications (Menyawi, September 1, 2006). The situation of Ikhwan-al-Musleemeen is also considered that homosexuality is the violation of Islamic law. For this reason Ikhwan-al-Musleemeen supported the Government attacks on Gay men. Such Emergency courts which were previously used for the prosecution of the religious fundamentalists now these courts are using for detain and tortured of the gay men. That is why the destination of Religious fundamentalists and gay men are inseparably linked. It seems not plausible that the Ikhwan-al-Musleemeen make a strategically coalition with Gay Men. Ikhwan-al-Musleemeen should understand that th e government is manipulating their Homophobia and Government also prosecuted Fundamentalists. In the United States a narrative is used i.e. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“coming out from the closetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  for the LGBT but deploying this narrative in Egypt is an entirely different social and cultural environment from the United States would have significantly diverse and adverse consequences (MENYAWI). So by coming out with a homosexual identity, it is likely to construct a new group in the society which became minority. This group came however under close and careful examination by the Government. Egyptian Government has banished and subjugates this minority instead of embracing and providing support and empathy. It is evident in second public campaign against homosexuals, in which Government gathered about 62 apparently Gay Men and brought them at earth System Science Center (ESSC). The cops stood outside the ESSC and tease them and yelling at them by saying: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Look at them, faggots! This country is become full of faggots!à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  the declaration of cops likely to infer something reality about these men. At the Appeals Court of Egypt in July 2003, Moà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢azer El-Marsafy, judge of the court disciplined the defendants by saying, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“We are so offended by you and we cannot even glance at you. You did a very main Sin of Religion. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Social scenario changes over time to time. Such culture which remain fixed, do not develop and grow must be go down because of their rigidity. The problem with the fundamentalist that they measure us with the same yard stick by which they are using for themselves or like such yard sticks which their forefathers told them about. Fundamentalist uses such interpretation of reality and pretends to us even more unknown, restricted and hostileà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . (MÃÆ' ¡rquez, 8 December 1982) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“He stared me from up to down and said, are you a theist?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬   I was shocked; I do not have words to say something. I know, I have more ethical values, righteousness than that guy. I know how stronger my relationship with God about which he do not know. But according to him I am just a punished person or eviler than an accused person, a ghost, because I am homosexualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . (Amgad, 2004) Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Homosexuals and the Current Scenario of Egypt" essay for you Create order (Amgad, 2004)International Human Rights and Social Justice for Homosexuals: Human Rights for homosexual have been expressed by Navi Pillay, High Commissioner for Human Rights and by Secretary General of United Nations, Ban Ki Moon (Association). A revolutionary speech by Secretary General in December 2010 delivered on LGBT equality in New York for calling an international legalization of homosexuality and takes other measures for handle the violence and the discrimination against LGBTà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s. According to him, since men and women are equal, we discard discrimination as a whole and particular discrimination centered on sexual orientation and sex identity. He said, it is not necessary to create new International laws or LGBT-specific Rights, for the protection of the LGBT people from violence and discrimination. It is the legal obligation of the state to safeguard the LGBT people like the other people living in the country. A state must follow the Human International Rights Law and they must be agreed on International human rights Treatise. Al l people who live in the state must enjoy the safety given by the International Human Rights Law regardless of sex and sexual orientation, gender identity, include respect of rights to life, security, privacy, free from torture, subjective arrest, freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association. The principal legal responsibilities of States to defending the Human Rights of LGBT include following duties: Prevention of folks from homophobic and transphobic forcefulness. Prevention of pain, hard, cruel, torture, heartless, inhuman and humiliating treatment. Cancelation of such laws which criminalize the homosexuality. Stop Discrimination based on gender identity and sexual orientation. Freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association for all LGBT people. In 1945, The Charter of United Nations, States: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“It is states in the testament of United Nations there must be respect for the fundamental rights and freedoms for all without any discrimination and distinctionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Chapter I, Article 1, #3 In 1945, Universal Declaration of Hume Rights, narrates in Article # 02 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Every person in the world allowed to have all the basic rights and freedoms wrote in the declaration without the discrimination and distinction of any kindà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Human Rights and Social Justice at Country Level: At the country level following questions must be addressed for the sake of Human Rights and Social Justice of LGBT people (Commision): Violation of Country Law: The constitution of Egypt does not allow the homosexuality and it is also in Islamic law and sharia is against the homosexuality. This law did not allow people to act in this way. According to Islam, man and woman are created for each other so the homosexuality is against the natural laws. History of Homosexuality in Egypt: It found in that ancient Egypt also had some sort of homosexual activities around 2500 B.C. But it is probability that people did not deliberately involve in such activities. Sex orientation of anyone determines whether he/she homosexual or not. When people have implicit knowledge and they admit consciously about themselves whether he/she is homo then that person search for their partner in the society. Perpetrators of Homosexuality: In the Islamic state, it is sure that anyone who is homosexual is committing a crime. But in general or in in the western culture perspective, other people who perceived homosexual as the perpetrators are actually the criminals. Primary motivation orobjective of the violations: In the current scenario of Egypt, political unbalance in the state really causes the violations. The Government of Egypt is not stable enough to resolve such sort of issues so Government tried to solve this issue with help of religious fundamentalists and activists. The current situation of Egypt represents that the actual victims are the underprivileged homosexual people. Consensus on the Crises and Compensation of the Victims: The issue of homosexuality will not be resolve sufficiently until the political situation of Egypt get better. With the involvement of United Nations in the crises of Homosexuality, this crisis will end in the broader way, just like in United States. When the crises will end then there should be some steps for compensation i.e. give them rights to live safely in the society with equal human rights which all human beings are possessing. Gay and Lesbian Rights and International Community: Foreign Governments expressed a lot of concern about the oppression of Gays in Egypt. French President Jacques Chirac upraised fears about the behavior and attitude towards gays in Egypt. The European Parliament sentenced the attacks on these men, wanting their freedom from custody and the termination of all trails of the citizens on the bases of homosexuality. In the United States some adherents of Congress who belongs to the Democratic Party of the United States suggests a bill in the Congress for reusing any support with Egypt Free Trade Agreement due to the trail of Gays (International Communist league). This action of Democratic Party impression amid Egyptians that Gay Character and Gay Rights was an artifact of the West, which is not producing a good relationship among Gays and United States. The disapproval of the trails of the Gay men of the West shows that they are also Western. Sonia Katyal who is Associate Dean for Research points out: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Unexpected ly, the appearance of public, cooperative, gay identity in some portions of the world has become intensively nervous with allegations of cultural inauthenticity and corruption of west. The conflict of these diverse forces, I argued that it must be produced some sort of global and cultural crunch of sexual identity, with the help of these developments, the globalizing of gay rights dissertation and it is associated reaction is conspicuous for its chronological coincidenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The Government of Egypt is changing the direction from their social and economic failures by arranging identity discourse of Gay Men. Egyptians were unconcerned, not much interested or ignorant suddenly look around themselves Gay People, in their own population. LGBT rights in Egypt: According to a report, about 10% to 12% of population of Egypt is homosexual and 95% of the Egyptians also believed that their sex orientation would not be accepted by the society in which they are living because they are not feeling in the same way as others in the society. In any enacted legislation or in any Egyptian Constitution, the Discrimination and aggravation of on the behalf of Sexual orientation and gender identity has not been expressly addressed in the Past. There is no politician or organization who talks about public support of LGBT rights. However it has been practiced to send the homosexuals in prison and mental institution to convert them into the normal gender or heterosexual. These activities are traditional in the Egypt culture. Cause behind the no political party or person addressing publically for the rights of LGBT is the religious fundamentalists and activists in the Egypt Government (Watch). Individual Case (Wissam Abyad Prosecution) Wissam Abyad was punished for 15 months in jail of Egypt on groundless charges of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Habitual Debaucheryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . That law is nebulous, a public morality law which is practiced in Egypt for criminalize the homosexuality. Wissam went to meet a man, who he has been communicating with, on the internet. That man was a government informant and he was being used against him at his trail. All the emails and communicating messages were exchanged by the Police of Cairo. Due to this physical evident Wissam was prosecuted for 15 months. His conviction was defended late on an appeal. Wissam came to the United States (wire) when released from the prison in Egypt last spring. He speaks out in contradiction of the human rights desecrations which are being dedicated against Gay Men in Egypt. Wissam also spoke in the support of Amnesty International Equality and Human rights Watch. A non-profit organization which propagates for equality in United States immigration Law for LGBT people, made a contact with Wissam. Wissam told that he might be able to obtain equality as the refugee in United States on the punishment he suffered because of his sexual orientation. Conclusion: Member of United States and United Nations has been working to discard and illegalization based on transphobia and homophobia whether the rejection of human rights for LGBT continue all over the world today. ABOUT 30 countries have been legalized the homosexuality in last 20 years. LGBT is attaining momentum by the efforts of UN and different NGOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s. It is no doubt by saying that United Nations making development toward the global presence of LGBT rights in the leadership of the Ban Ki Moon, Secretary General of United Nation. For the prosecution of homosexuals, Egypt is not only a single Muslim country. It has been happened across the Muslim world from Malaysia to Morocco. It is a big crime in Islamic Law, Sharia. The punishment of this offense is death in Iran, Pakistan, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. It is the amount of ubiquity of anti-Gay prejudice in such societies that there is no expression in Urdu, Arabic and Persian for homosexuality that is not sneering or derogatory. Bibliography The Egyptian Blogosphere: Policing Gender and Sexuality and the Consequences for Queer Emancipation. (2012). Grant Walsh-Haines; Journal of Middle East Womens Studies, 8(3), 41-62. Amgad. (2004). Human Rights Watch interview with Amgad. In a Time of Torture: The Assault on Justice in Egyptà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Crackdown on Homosexual Conduct. Association, A. P. (n.d.). Are LGBT rights human rights? Recent developments at the United Nations. Retrieved from www.apa.org: https://www.apa.org/international/pi/2012/06/un-matters.aspx Commision, I. G. (n.d.). Magazines from LGBT Groups in North Africa Available Online. Retrieved from https://iglhrc.org/: https://iglhrc.org/content/magazines-lgbt-groups-north-africa-available-online International Communist league, F. I. (n.d.). Protest Anti-Gay Persecution in Egypt! Retrieved from https://www.icl-fi.org/: https://www.icl-fi.org/english/wv/archives/oldsite/2003/Egypt801.htm MÃÆ' ¡rquez, G. G. (8 December 1982). The Solitude of Latin America. Nobel Lecture, Oslo, Norway. MENYAWI, H. E. (n.d.). ACTIVISM FROM THE CLOSET: GAY RIGHTS STRATEGISING IN EGYPT. Menyawi, H. E. (September 1, 2006). Persecution of Homosexuals: The Egyptian Governments Trojan Horse against Religious Groups. Human Rights Brief, Volume 14, Issue 1, Fall 2006 . Rind, B. (1998). Biased Use of Cross-Cultural and Historical Perspectives on Male Homosexuality in Human Sexuality Textbooks. The Journal of Sex Research, 397-407. Watch, H. R. (n.d.). LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL, AND TRANSGENDER RIGHTS. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/: https://www.hrw.org/topic/lgbt-rights wire, P. n. (n.d.). Former Amnesty International Prisoner of Conscience Wins Asylum in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.prnewswire.com/: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/former-amnesty-international-prisoner-of-conscience-wins-asylum-in-the-united-states-73959027.html